Neural Biomarkers of Electroconvulsive Therapy Response

Inclusion Criteria: 1. current positive symptoms rated ≥4 (moderate) on one or more of these BPRS 53 items: hallucinatory behavior, unusual thought content, suspiciousness, conceptual disorganization; 2. has failed at least one trial of treatment with antipsychotic drug, lasting 6 weeks in duration, 3. competent and willing to sign informed consent; 4. for women, negative pregnancy test and agreement to use a medically accepted birth control method; and 5. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)-IV diagnosis of schizophrenia, schizoaffective or schizophreniform disorder. Exclusion Criteria: 1. serious neurological or endocrine disorder; 2. any medical condition which requires treatment with a medication with psychotropic effects; 3. significant risk of suicidal or homicidal behavior; 4. cognitive (MMSE ≤ 23) or language limitations that would preclude subjects providing informed consent; 5. contraindications to treatment with electroconvulsive therapy; 6. contraindications to magnetic resonance imaging (e.g. pacemaker)